Research progress on hydrogen transport technology of mixed hydrogen natural gas

Polaris Hydrogen Energy Network News: The hydrogen transmission technology of mixed hydrogen natural gas is a new hydrogen transmission scheme proposed by developed countries in recent years. This technology utilizes the existing natural gas pipeline facilities, avoids huge investment in the construction of hydrogen pipeline network, and is expected to solve the problem of large-scale hydrogen transportation. This paper introduces the concept, characteristics and key technical issues of hydrogen-blended natural gas technology, and reviews related technologies including hydrogen preparation, pipeline reconstruction, hydrogen separation, and the use of hydrogen-blended natural gas. Finally, the prospect of hydrogen transport with hydrogen-blended natural gas is prospected, and the related problems that need to be solved for hydrogen transport with hydrogen-blended natural gas are summarized.

With the development of society, primary energy dominated by fossil fuels such as oil and coal is difficult to meet the demand. Environmental pollution, greenhouse effect and the gradual depletion of fossil energy make it urgent to find new clean energy. Hydrogen energy is a clean secondary energy carrier, which has been widely concerned by scholars at home and abroad for a long time. Among them, safe and efficient hydrogen transportation technology is one of the main bottlenecks for the large-scale application of hydrogen energy. Pipeline transportation of hydrogen has a large volume and low cost, but special hydrogen pipelines need to be built.

The concept of hydrogen-blended natural gas was originally proposed by LYNCH et al. as a low-carbon fuel for internal combustion engines. In recent years, developed countries in Europe and the United States have proposed plans to use existing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen-mixed natural gas. On the one hand, the technology uses a low-carbon and clean mixed gas fuel, which can reduce the carbon emissions generated by the use of natural gas; on the other hand, the technology avoids the construction of high-cost hydrogen pipelines and is a low-cost and efficient way of hydrogen transportation It is expected to become a key engine for hydrogen energy applications. This paper analyzes the related technologies of hydrogen production, hydrogen transport, and hydrogen use related to hydrogen-mixed natural gas.

1 Introduction to hydrogen transmission technology in natural gas pipelines

The use of hydrogen mixed natural gas for hydrogen transportation refers to the technology of mixing a certain concentration of hydrogen into the existing natural gas pipeline system to form a hydrogen-natural gas mixed gas for transportation. Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram of hydrogen mixed natural gas hydrogen transportation and related technologies. According to the needs of end users, hydrogen-natural gas mixed gas can be used directly as fuel, or hydrogen can be separated downstream of the pipeline for use. The hydrogen transmission technology of mixed hydrogen natural gas has the following advantages:

1) Diversified hydrogen sources, which can utilize various sources of hydrogen and hydrogen-containing gas.

2) Low cost. Using existing natural gas pipeline facilities, hydrogen can be transported at low cost and long distances.

3) Low-carbon emissions, providing low-carbon clean fuels for the majority of users.

Hydrogen-blended natural gas technology is considered as a way to achieve low-cost hydrogen delivery. The hybrid hydrogen natural gas hydrogen transmission technology can not only improve the overall utilization efficiency of the energy system, but also is expected to combine a variety of hydrogen energy technologies to become an important transitional technology towards the "hydrogen economy".

2 Sources of hydrogen-mixed natural gas

2.1 Gas mixing method

The sources of hydrogen and methane are different. Hydrogen is secondary energy, which is produced from primary energy, while natural gas is artificially exploited fossil energy. It is currently believed that the hydrogen-natural gas mixture for pipeline transportation can be realized in the following three forms:

1) In the upstream of the natural gas pipeline network, the produced hydrogen is mixed with the extracted natural gas and injected. According to the current volume of natural gas pipeline networks in industrialized countries, even if hydrogen-mixed natural gas with a low hydrogen volume fraction is used, a large amount of hydrogen will be produced, which will directly drive the development of the hydrogen energy industry.

2) In the upstream of the natural gas pipeline network, the hydrogen-methane gas mixture is directly produced and injected, and the mixed gas can be derived from the hydrogen-methane gas mixture produced by the methane-steam reforming technology. In addition, biomass hydrogen production technology is also expected to produce hydrogen-methane gas mixture.

3) In the areas covered by the natural gas pipeline network, use various renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen according to local conditions, mix it with the gas in the pipeline network and inject it. This approach can integrate a variety of renewable energy sources to promote clean energy and maximize benefits.

2.2 Source of hydrogen

The hydrogen mixed into the natural gas pipeline network can come from three sources: 1) hydrogen produced by traditional hydrogen production technology; 2) hydrogen produced by renewable energy; 3) industrial by-product hydrogen and hydrogen-containing tail gas.

Hydrogen production technology can be divided into fossil energy hydrogen production and renewable energy hydrogen production according to the energy source. Fossil energy hydrogen production is currently the mainstream industrial hydrogen production technology, but there are greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the product. To meet the requirements of low-carbon emissions, CO2 capture technology needs to be adopted, which will significantly increase the cost. Among the renewable energy sources, the electrolysis of water, photovoltaics, and wind power can be used to produce hydrogen and solar catalysis to produce hydrogen, which is in line with the development direction of clean energy. However, because solar energy, water energy and wind energy are greatly affected by the environment, time and region, they often cause serious problems such as "abandoning light", "abandoning water" and "abandoning wind". If the surplus power can be directly electrolyzed in the power station to produce hydrogen, and mixed into the natural gas pipeline network for storage and transportation, it can not only solve the problem of the discontinuity of renewable energy in space and time, but also improve the efficiency of renewable energy power generation. economical. In addition, hydrogen production by electrolysis of water during the low power grid period can not only significantly save the cost of hydrogen production, but also enable the power grid to achieve the regulation effect of “peak shaving and valley filling”.

Biomass energy is a renewable energy source. Biomass hydrogen production is a method of converting the energy of organic matter into hydrogen. The microorganisms that produce hydrogen mainly include three groups: dark fermentation bacteria, photolysis microorganisms and light fermentation bacteria. Biomass used for hydrogen production can come from urban sewage, domestic waste, etc. Therefore, it also has strong practical significance in environmental pollution control. However, the hydrogen production efficiency and energy conversion rate of biomass hydrogen production are relatively low, which still needs to be studied.

Methanol hydrogen production technology is a hydrogen production technology that has received extensive attention in recent years. Methanol extracted from biomass is a clean energy source. According to the research of Zhang Xinrong et al., methanol and water react under normal pressure, 250 °C and catalytic conditions to obtain a mixture of hydrogen, carbon dioxide and a small amount of carbon monoxide, and hydrogen can be obtained after separation.

Table 1 shows the cost and characteristics of several hydrogen production technologies. Among them, electrolysis of water and fossil energy are the most mature industrial hydrogen production technologies.

In addition, the mixed hydrogen natural gas technology also has good recycling value for by-product hydrogen and methane in many industries (chlor-alkali, coking, synthetic ammonia, etc.). There is a large amount of by-product hydrogen in China's chlor-alkali industry. In 2017, the by-product hydrogen in my country's chlor-alkali industry exceeded 800,000 tons. Such industrial waste gas can be injected into natural gas pipelines through simple treatment, thereby improving energy efficiency and economic benefits.

3 Natural gas pipeline to transport hydrogen

The pipeline transportation of mixed hydrogen natural gas requires the use of existing natural gas pipeline network facilities, and the large-scale transportation of mixed gas can be realized only through limited transformation. Pipeline transportation of mixed gas containing hydrogen has been widely used in industrial countries. Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide obtained by reacting fossil fuels such as coal, coke or petroleum with water vapor. As early as the mid-19th century, gas was used for civil fuel in towns and cities, and many European countries built gas network systems. Subsequently, due to the popularity of natural gas, many countries, such as the United States, Canada, Austria, France, and Germany, gradually experienced the transition from coal gas to natural gas led by the government from the 1950s to the 1970s.

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of international studies on hydrogen-mixed natural gas. At present, many countries are evaluating the feasibility of natural gas pipeline network facilities for transporting hydrogen-mixed natural gas (as shown in Figure 2, where the constraints shown in the figure are: the CNG filling station in Germany is not connected to the pipeline network; Lithuania The pressure of the pipeline is greater than 16×105Pa; the Netherlands uses high-heating gas). The United Kingdom and Germany have carried out a number of hydrogen-mixed natural gas demonstration projects. Studies have shown that it is feasible to transport hydrogen-mixed natural gas with existing natural gas pipelines. The HyDeploy demonstration project in the UK injects 20% (volume fraction) hydrogen into the existing natural gas network at Keele University to supply 100 households and 30 teaching buildings. The German company E.ON also plans to increase the hydrogen mixing rate in the natural gas pipeline network to 20%.

The framework of my country's natural gas pipeline network system has basically been formed, and the natural gas pipeline transportation technology is mature. According to the "China Natural Gas Development Report (2019)", by the end of 2018, the total length of my country's natural gas trunk pipelines reached 76,000 km, with a one-time gas transmission capacity of 320 billion m3/a. Therefore, it can be considered that the use of natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen-mixed natural gas in my country has a strong feasibility. Based on natural gas pipeline reconstruction and safety, there are two issues that need attention: hydrogen embrittlement failure of pipeline materials and hydrogen leakage loss.

3.1 Hydrogen embrittlement of materials

It is well known that many metallic materials suffer from hydrogen embrittlement, resulting in reduced material toughness and increased fatigue crack growth rate, which can lead to material failure during service. Worldwide, natural gas pipelines usually use X70 and X80 pipeline steels, while hydrogen pipelines usually use X42 and X52 pipeline steels. The natural gas pipeline materials in my country are mainly steel. The effect of hydrogen embrittlement on different grades of steel is different, but it will lead to deterioration of material properties. Small-sized parts such as bolts, springs, rivets, etc. are more prone to hydrogen embrittlement due to their large deformation and small grain size during processing. For some key connecting parts, they should be regularly inspected and replaced in time. At the same time, hydrogen embrittlement affects not only pipeline materials, but also components in gas compressors and pipeline valves. The adaptability of some old natural gas facilities and newly renovated natural gas facilities to hydrogen-blended natural gas is shown in Figure 3. In addition, hydrogen embrittlement is prone to occur in the welded parts of the pipeline, and the treatment process of the pipeline should be optimized before injecting hydrogen into the natural gas pipeline.

Because hydrogen embrittlement is related to hydrogen concentration, in order to ensure the safety of pipeline facilities for transporting hydrogen-mixed natural gas, the concentration of hydrogen should be controlled within a low range. Zhang Xiaoqiang et al pointed out that in addition to the hydrogen volume fraction, the pressure of the pipeline should also be considered for the impact of hydrogen injection into the natural gas pipeline. When the volume fraction of hydrogen injected into the natural gas pipeline is less than 10%, the pipeline operating pressure should be less than 7.7MPa; when the hydrogen volume fraction is greater than 10%, the pipeline operating pressure should be less than 5.38MPa. The research of Shi Shijie et al. shows that the hydrogen corrosion of X70 pipeline steel will not occur under the delivery pressure of 12MPa with a volume fraction of 16.7% hydrogen. An assessment report released by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Laboratory for Renewable Energy believes that the U.S. natural gas system can basically withstand hydrogen with a volume fraction of less than 20%. In general, the gas mixture with lower hydrogen volume fraction is more compatible with the existing pipe network system, while the use of gas with higher hydrogen volume fraction requires replacement of some facilities.

3.2 Safety assessment and loss of hydrogen leakage

Although hydrogen has a wide concentration explosion limit, hydrogen is the smallest gas molecule and its diffusion rate is relatively fast. In order to assess the safety of hydrogen-blended natural gas technology in the event of pipeline failure, the NaturalHy project established a quantitative risk assessment model to calculate the risk coefficients at different locations near the gas pipeline. In pipelines with different diameters, the risk coefficients of natural gas and natural gas injected with 25% (volume fraction, the same below) hydrogen at different positions of the pipeline are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen from Figure 4 that for the natural gas pipeline transportation containing 25% hydrogen, the risk coefficient of the position closer to the hydrogen-mixed natural gas pipeline is slightly higher than that of the pure natural gas pipeline, and the risk coefficient of the position farther from the hydrogen-mixed natural gas pipeline is higher than that of the pure natural gas. Low near the pipe.

During transportation, hydrogen is easily diffused and leaked to the outside in the pipeline, especially at flanges, sealing threads, valves, etc. Although the leakage rate of gas in the material is slow, and there is no safety hazard in general, the gas loss accumulated by long-term leakage cannot be ignored. Among piping materials, carbon steel has a lower hydrogen permeability than plastics such as PVC. The methane gas mixture containing 10% hydrogen in the PE80 natural gas pipeline made of polyethylene, the permeability coefficient of hydrogen is 4~5 times that of pure methane. Compared with natural gas, hydrogen-mixed natural gas has more leakage during long-distance pipeline transportation. Studies have shown that the leakage of hydrogen-mixed natural gas containing 20% ​​H2 is twice that of pure natural gas during the transmission process. Although gas leakage will cause certain losses, this loss is acceptable.

4 Hydrogen separation

Hydrogen-blended natural gas itself is a low-carbon fuel that can be used for direct combustion to obtain heat or to generate electricity. Fuel cells fueled by high-purity hydrogen can utilize energy more efficiently. At this time, higher-purity hydrogen needs to be separated from the mixed gas. Several hydrogen separation methods are introduced here, including pressure swing adsorption, membrane separation, cryogenic separation, hydrogen storage alloy separation and electrochemical separation. The use of these gas separation methods to separate hydrogen-mixed natural gas with low hydrogen concentration has yet to be verified, and there are still few researches on hydrogen separation technology for hydrogen-mixed natural gas.

4.1 Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)

The principle of pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is to selectively separate gases by utilizing the different adsorption capacities of adsorbent materials for gas components. The adsorbent is filled on the adsorption bed, and when the mixed gas is passed into the adsorption bed, part of the gas components will be adsorbed, and the remaining gas components will pass through the adsorption bed. Hydrogen is a weakly adsorbed molecule compared to other gases. The separation of hydrogen by pressure swing adsorption has been widely used in the chemical industry. For example, the pressure swing adsorption method recovers the hydrogen in the vent gas of the PTA hydrogenation reduction reaction, which can purify the hydrogen to 99.5%. Pressure swing adsorption is also used for hydrogen purification of electrolytic brine.

The separation of hydrogen by pressure swing adsorption generally consists of three basic steps: 1) At a higher adsorption pressure, the mixed gas passes through the adsorption bed, part of the gas is adsorbed, and the weakly adsorbed molecules are discharged from the separation tower and recovered; 2) The adsorption The adsorbent is removed by vacuuming and flushing; 3) A weakly adsorbed gas component (hydrogen) is introduced into the adsorbent to pressurize the adsorbent bed for use in the next round.

The separation of hydrogen by pressure swing adsorption has the advantages of short cycle, long cycle life and high purity. The pressure swing adsorption method is generally used for the separation of hydrogen in the mixed gas (hydrogen with a small amount of impurities) in which hydrogen is the main component. However, the hydrogen content of hydrogen-mixed natural gas is low, and methane (strongly adsorbed gas) is the main component. Therefore, repeated adsorption and vacuum desorption of the adsorption bed are required, resulting in complicated process, increased energy consumption, and difficult process control.

4.2 Membrane separation

Membrane separation technology utilizes the different permeability properties of special membranes to each component in the mixed gas, and uses the pressure difference on both sides of the membrane as the driving force to separate the gas, which has become one of the widely used gas separation technologies.

In the process of membrane separation of mixed gas, the pressure difference on both sides of the membrane is used as the driving force, so that the components with higher permeability (such as hydrogen) in the gas can easily permeate through the membrane and be enriched on the other side of the membrane. Lower components (such as methane, etc.) have difficulty permeating the membrane and remain on one side of the membrane. Hydrogen separation membranes include ceramic membranes, polymer membranes, molecular sieve membranes, and metal membranes. For example, after the palladium is made into a metal film, the purity of the hydrogen obtained by separation is almost 100%. Palladium-based separation membranes are mostly used for the preparation of high-purity hydrogen and the separation of hydrogen isotopes. However, the preparation cost of palladium-based separation membrane is relatively high, and the application in the civilian field is limited. The hydrogen content of hydrogen-mixed natural gas is relatively low, and it is difficult to use the membrane separation method. This is because the pressure separation difference on both sides of the membrane is too large, which easily crushes the separation membrane. The supported membranes can increase the mechanical strength of the membrane by adding a support, which can increase the pressure difference that the separation membrane can withstand.

4.3 Cryogenic separation

Cryogenic separation refers to the use of the difference in boiling point of different gases to cool and liquefy the mixed gas under high pressure to achieve the purpose of separating the mixed gas. Cryogenic separation, also known as cryogenic method or cryogenic rectification method, was invented in the early 20th century and has been widely used to separate oxygen from air. At the same time, cryogenic separation is also one of the main technologies for separating cracked gas in the petrochemical industry.

Cryogenic separation technology requires significant differences in the boiling points of the gas components. Under standard conditions, the boiling points of hydrogen, methane, and ethane are −252.8, −161.5, and −88.6 °C, respectively. Therefore, cryogenic separation of hydrogen-mixed natural gas is feasible. However, the disadvantage of cryogenic separation is that the process equipment is complicated, the energy consumption is large, and the maintenance is inconvenient.

4.4 Separation of hydrogen storage alloys

The hydrogen storage alloy separation method utilizes the reversible hydrogen absorption and desorption properties of hydrogen storage alloy materials. First, the hydrogen-mixed natural gas is introduced to make the hydrogen storage alloy react to absorb hydrogen, and then the temperature is raised to make the hydrogen storage alloy release hydrogen. The principle is to use the reversible reaction that occurs in its hydrogen absorption and desorption:

In order for the hydrogen storage alloy to absorb hydrogen in the mixed gas with low hydrogen concentration, the hydrogen storage alloy needs to have good hydrogen absorption kinetics. On the other hand, the enthalpy change and entropy change of hydrogen absorption and desorption reaction of hydrogen storage alloy need to satisfy the Van't Hoff equation, so that at a certain temperature, hydrogen can be absorbed under the hydrogen partial pressure of the mixed gas, and the suitable pressure can be released after heating of hydrogen. The hydrogen storage alloy separation method can produce nearly 100% high-purity hydrogen.

In addition to methane and other hydrocarbon gases, there are generally a small amount of impurity gases such as CO2 and N2 in natural gas. Due to the strong chemical activity of hydrogen storage alloy materials, if the hydrogen-mixed natural gas contains oxidizing gas, the gas separation process will lead to alloy poisoning and hydrogen storage performance degradation. Therefore, the harmful gas in the mixed gas needs to be removed in advance.

4.5 Electrochemical hydrogen separation

Electrochemical hydrogen separation (electrochemical hydrogenseparation) refers to the use of a fuel cell system, the mixed gas is passed into the fuel cell, driven by electrical energy, the hydrogen is reacted at the anode to generate hydrogen ions, and the hydrogen ions are combined with electrons at the cathode side to generate hydrogen, which is discharged. High-purity hydrogen. The electrochemical hydrogen separation device based on the low temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell system was first developed in the 1960s. At present, more research is based on the proton exchange membrane fuel cell system, using polybenzimidazole (PBI) thin film as the electrolyte. separation device. Electrochemical hydrogen separation utilizes the reverse reaction of the fuel cell, with an applied electric field as the driving force, to cause the ions in the electrolyte to move directionally. The principle (see Figure 5) is as follows:

The hydrogen in the mixed gas is reacted at the anode to obtain hydrogen ions, and then moves directionally through the electrolyte under the action of an electric field, and is reduced at the cathode to release pure hydrogen. Electrochemical hydrogen separation devices require an external DC power source to drive the directional movement of cations. The advantage of using the electrochemical hydrogen separation device to separate the mixed gas is that even for the hydrogen-depleted gas, the technology still has good separation performance. In addition, the electrochemical separation device also has the characteristics of high separation purity, low energy consumption, and high separation efficiency.

5 Application of hydrogen-mixed natural gas

Hydrogen-mixed natural gas can cover a wide range of end users through the natural gas pipeline network. As a low-carbon fuel, it has many application scenarios and potential markets. On the one hand, hydrogen-mixed natural gas can be used as fuel for household gas appliances and natural gas vehicles; on the other hand, after the hydrogen-mixed natural gas is separated, hydrogen can be supplied to hydrogen refueling stations and fuel cell power generation facilities.

5.1 Domestic Gas

As a low-carbon fuel, hydrogen-mixed natural gas is directly used instead of natural gas in some household appliances such as gas stoves, water heaters, and heating water heaters. The building's gas central air conditioning system can also use natural gas fueled with hydrogen. Table 2 shows the comparison results of some relevant physical and chemical properties of methane, hydrogen and gasoline. Compared with other fuels, hydrogen has the advantages of low ignition energy and fast flame propagation speed. Through research, Ma Xiangyang et al. found that when the combustion potential and Huabai number of natural gas are satisfied, the maximum hydrogen content in methane is 23%. Luo Zixuan et al. found that when the hydrogen content of natural gas was 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%, the combustion test was carried out in a variety of burning appliances, and the flame stability could meet the requirements, and the content of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides produced by the combustion met the requirements. National standard, and with the increase of hydrogen content, the carbon monoxide content of flue gas is reduced, and at the same time, the thermal efficiency of burning appliances is improved.

5.2 Natural gas vehicles

The use of hydrogen-mixed natural gas in automobile internal combustion engines has attracted long-term attention. LYNCH et al. proposed this idea and carried out research, and found that the combustion performance of hydrogen-mixed natural gas in gasoline internal combustion engines is similar, so there is no need to replace the engine. At the same time, since the incorporation of hydrogen changes the physical and chemical properties of the gas, the fuel lean limit will be widened and the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) pollution will be reduced. Studies have shown that methane is a greenhouse gas. Cars fueled by compressed natural gas have problems with methane exhaust emissions. Mixing hydrogen with natural gas can reduce the amount of methane emitted by automobile exhausts and improve engine combustion. AKANSU et al. conducted research on natural gas injected with different proportions of hydrogen, and found that the use of hydrogen-mixed natural gas as fuel can change the maximum pressure in the internal combustion engine, reduce exhaust loss, and improve the thermal efficiency of the internal combustion engine. According to the research of DIMOPOULOS et al., mixed hydrogen natural gas can improve the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engine under low load and high load state. Excessive hydrogen content in the mixed gas may cause problems such as knocking and power drop. AKANSU et al. analyzed the combustion of hydrogen-mixed natural gas in an internal combustion engine and found that the use of a mixed gas with a hydrogen content of about 20% has better energy efficiency. Wang Lei et al. found that the use of hydrogen-mixed natural gas as the gas for natural gas engines can help solve the problems of high ignition energy and low combustion rate of gas in engines. It should be pointed out that the volumetric energy density of hydrogen is about 1/3 of that of natural gas. Therefore, compared with pure natural gas, the energy density of hydrogen-blended natural gas in the vehicle-mounted gas storage tank is reduced, which has a certain impact on the driving distance of the vehicle. But in general, hydrogen-blended natural gas still has certain advantages as a fuel for natural gas vehicles.

5.3 Gas Turbine

Gas turbine is a kind of power plant with low quality, high power, low pollution and high economy. It has been widely used as a generator set in Europe and the United States. There is a certain gap between the application of gas turbines in my country and developed countries in the West. Gas turbines in the power system mainly play a role in peak regulation, and the power generation accounts for only 4%.

The use of hydrogen-mixed natural gas as fuel can improve the combustion conditions and exhaust emissions of gas turbine combustors. According to a study by SCHEFER et al. on different fuels under lean burn conditions, the incorporation of hydrogen into a methane/air mixture can increase the concentration of OH radicals, improve flame stability and reduce CO content. According to RORTVEIT et al., adding hydrogen to methane for combustion reduces the formation of nitrogen oxides.

Gas turbines play an important role in defense, transportation, energy and other fields. Gas turbines use hydrogen-blended natural gas as fuel, which improves combustion stability in the combustion chamber, improves the acoustics in the combustion chamber, and reduces exhaust emissions.

5.4 Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is a power generation device that can convert the chemical energy of gas and oxygen into electrical energy. Because it is not limited by the efficiency of the Carnot cycle, it has a high energy conversion efficiency. Hydrogen, methane and mixed gas in the pipeline transportation of mixed hydrogen natural gas can be used as fuel gas for different types of fuel cells. Common fuel cell types are shown in Table 3. This article focuses on solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs).

Solid oxide fuel cells have the advantages of easy availability of fuel and high energy conversion rate. Solid oxide fuel cells can use various gases such as hydrogen, natural gas, and coal gas, and have strong adaptability to fuels. Therefore, hydrogen-mixed natural gas can also be used directly. CINTI et al. studied the performance of SOFC mixed with hydrogen gas with different hydrogen contents. Compared with SOFC with pure methane, it was found that the use of mixed hydrogen fuel has higher conversion efficiency of combined heat and power, and at the same time reduces the thermal stress and thermal shock during stack operation. For SOFC systems using hydrogen-mixed natural gas, there is still a lack of systematic research in this area.

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a fuel cell with hydrogen as the fuel gas, and its operating temperature ranges from 60 to 80 °C, while the high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell can reach 200 °C. PEMFC has the advantages of small size, no noise, and portability, and is suitable as a power source for various vehicles. At the same time, it has broad application prospects in portable power supplies, uninterruptible power supplies, and distributed power stations. After the hydrogen and oxygen react in the PEMFC, the directly discharged product is water, which will not pollute the environment and is a very ideal energy utilization method. PEMFC has great potential as a vehicle power. Automobile groups around the world, such as Japan's Toyota Motor Corporation, Germany's Mercedes-Benz Motor Corporation, and South Korea's Hyundai Motor Corporation, have successively announced or developed a new generation of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The hydrogen-mixed natural gas technology is expected to play a role in promoting the promotion and application of fuel cell vehicles. The hydrogen refueling station to be built in the future can be directly connected to the hydrogen-mixed natural gas pipeline network, and the hydrogen will be supplied to fuel cell vehicles after being separated.

6 Outlook

Hydrogen energy is a clean energy that has attracted much attention at present. At present, there are many competitive hydrogen production technologies, and hydrogen is widely used in civil and industrial fields. However, long-distance hydrogen transportation faces many problems.

The hydrogen-blended natural gas technology provides a new idea for hydrogen transportation. As a low-carbon fuel, hydrogen-blended natural gas can reduce greenhouse gas and polluting gas emissions. More importantly, the use of hydrogen-blended natural gas can increase the proportion of hydrogen energy in energy, reduce the dependence on traditional fossil fuels, and also help to expand the demand for hydrogen and reduce the cost of hydrogen production through scale. Promotion in sectors such as transportation, construction, manufacturing and electricity is of great significance.

The pipeline transportation technology of mixed hydrogen natural gas is still in the early stage, and many related technical problems remain to be solved and verified:

1) The resistance of pipelines to hydrogen and the resulting safety considerations are the most concerned issues, and pipelines and related accessories need to be fully evaluated. The use of lower hydrogen content mixtures eliminates the need for extensive plumbing changes and lowers safety risks.

2) In terms of hydrogen supply, it is necessary to integrate various hydrogen sources such as new energy hydrogen production, chemical product hydrogen and industrial by-product hydrogen to reduce the cost of hydrogen and make hydrogen-mixed natural gas competitive.

3) Although hydrogen-mixed natural gas is directly used as fuel in many cases, if it is supplied to proton exchange membrane fuel cells and hydrogen refueling stations, hydrogen separation technology still needs to be studied.

references:

[1] Zhao Yongzhi, Meng Bo, Chen Linxin, et al. Analysis on the utilization of hydrogen energy [J]. Progress in Chemical Industry, 2015, 34(9): 3248−3255.ZHAO Yongzhi, MENG Bo, CHEN Linxin, et al. Utilization status of hydrogen energy[J]. Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress, 2015, 34(9): 3248−3255.

[2] LYNCH FE, MARMARO R W. Special purpose blends of hydrogen and natural gas: USA, 5139002[P]. 1992−08−18.

[3] MEHRA RK, DUAN Hao, JUKNELEVIČIUS R, et al. Progress in hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG) internal combustion engines: a comprehensive review[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2017, 80: 1458−1498.

[4] Zhao Yongzhi, Zhang Xin, Zheng Jinyang, et al. Safety technology of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline transportation [J]. Chemical Machinery, 2016, 43(1): 1−7. ZHAO Yongzhi, ZHANG Xin, ZHENG Jinyang, et al. Safety technology for pipeline transportation of HydrogenNatural gas mixtures[J]. Chemical Engineering & Machinery, 2016, 43(1): 1−7.

[5] CINTI G, BIDINI G, HEMMES K. Comparison of the solid oxide fuel cell system for micro CHP using natural gas with a system using a mixture of natural gas and hydrogen[J]. Applied Energy, 2019, 238: 69− 77.

[6] Wu Gaoxiang, Tian Rui. Research progress of carbon dioxide capture technology[J]. Yunnan Chemical Industry, 2020, 47(4): 22−23. WU Gaoxiang, TIAN Rui. Research progress of carbon dioxide capture technology[J]. Yunnan Chemical Technology, 2020, 47(4): 22−23.

[7] Zhang Ke, Liu Shuli, Liu Mingming, et al. Research progress of hydrogen energy[J]. Materials Review, 2011, 25(9): 116−119. ZHANG Ke, LIU Shuli, LIU Mingming, et al. Research developments of hydrogen energy[J]. Materials Review, 2011, 25(9): 116−119.

[8] Qin Biao, Liu Yang, Ma Chengfeng. Analysis on the development status and prospect of solar energy utilization technology [J]. Chemical Management, 2017, 32(8): 178−180. QING Biao, LIU Yang, MA Chengfeng. Analysis on the present situation and prospect of solar energy utilization technology[J]. Chemical Enterprise Management, 2017, 32 (8): 178−180.

[9] Cao Fan, Chen Kunyang, Guo Tingting, et al. Research on the technology path of hydrogen energy industry development [J]. Distributed Energy, 2020, 5(1): 1−8. CAO Fan, CHEN Kunyang, GUO Tingting, et al . Research on technological path of hydrogen energy industry development[J]. Distributed Energy, 2020, 5(1): 1−8.

[10] Sun Lihong, Tao Huchun. Review of biohydrogen production methods[J]. Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin, 2014, 30(36): 161−167. SUN Lihong, TAO Huchun. A review of biohydrogen production[J]. Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin, 2014, 30(36): 161−167.

[11] Ren Nanqi, Guo Wanxi, Liu Bingfeng. Development and application prospects of biological hydrogen production technology [J]. Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology, 2010, 42(6): 855−863. REN Nanqi, GUO Wanxi, LIU Bingfeng. Development and application prospect of bio-hydrogen production technology [J]. Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology, 2010, 42(6): 855−863.

[12] Wang Xiaomei, Li Zhiyang, Zhu Yu, et al. Research on the method of methanol reforming for hydrogen production [J]. New Chemical Materials, 2014, 42(3): 42−44, 47. WANG Xiaomei, LI Zhiyang, ZHU Yu, et al. Study on methanol reforming methods of hydrogen production[J]. New Chemical Materials, 2014, 42(3): 42−44, 47.

[13] Zhang Xinrong, Shi Pengfei, Liu Chuntao. Study on Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 Catalyst for Hydrogen Production by Steam Reforming of Methanol [J]. Journal of Fuel Chemistry, 2003, 49(3): 284 −288. ZHANG Xinrong, SHI Pengfei, LIU Chuntao. Study on Cu/ ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst for hydrogen production from methanol steam reforming[J]. Journal of Fuel Chemistry and Technology, 2003, 49(3): 284−288

[14] Liu Xiaoli. Comparison of hydrogen generation process and technology[J]. Modern Chemical Research, 2016, 16 (5): 78−79. LIU Xiaoli. Comparison of hydrogen generation process and technology[J]. Modern Chemical Research, 2016, 16 (5): 78 −79.

[15] Li Yanhao, Hao Shuren, Ma Peisheng. Methods for hydrogen production at small or medium scale[J]. Progress in Chemical Industry, 2001, 20(9): 22−25. LI Yanhao, HAO Shuren, MA Peisheng. Methods for hydrogen production at small or medium scale[J]. Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress, 2001, 20(9): 22−25.

[16] Zhang Hui, Liu Xinxin, Fu Shiyu. Biomass hydrogen production technology and its research progress [J]. China Paper, 2019, 38(7): 68−74. ZHANG Hui, LIU Xinxin, FU Shiyu. Research advances in technology of hydrogen production from biomass[J]. China Pulp and Paper, 2019, 38(7): 68−74.

[17] Chen Yumin, Zhang Junying, Qin Yong, et al. A steam reforming device and method for coke oven gas co-production of hydrogen and carbon fixation: China, ZL201510583854.1[P]. 2015− 12−30. CHEN Yumin, ZHANG Junying, QIN Yong, et al. The steam reforming device and method of coke oven gas synergy hydrogen production and carbon fixation: China, ZL201510583854.1[P]. 2015−12−30.

[18] Yang Qi, Su Wei, Yao Lan, et al. Research progress of biomass hydrogen production technology [J]. New Chemical Materials, 2018, 46(10): 247−250, 258. YANG Qi, SU Wei, YAO Lan , et al. Progress of biomass hydrogen production technology[J]. New Chemical Materials, 2018, 46(10): 247−250, 258.

[19] Qu Guohua. my country's hydrogen energy industry development and hydrogen resources [J]. Contemporary Petroleum & Petrochemical, 2020, 28(4): 4−9. QU Guohua. China's hydrogen energy industry development and hydrogen resources[J]. Petroleum & Petrochemicals Petrochemical Today, 2020, 28(4): 4−9.

[20] Xu Ruhui. Analysis of hydrogen potential of chemical byproducts in hydrogen refueling stations[J]. Energy Conservation, 2019, 38(2): 110−112.XU Ruhui. Analysis of hydrogen potential of chemical byproducts in hydrogen refueling stations[J]. Energy Conservation, 2019, 38(2): 110−112.

[21] WORTHINGTON W E. Invisible fuel: manufactured and natural gas in America, 1800-2000 (review) [J]. Technology and Culture, 2001, 42(1): 145−146.

[22] MELANA MW, ANTONIA O, PENEV M. Blending hydrogen into natural gas pipeline network: a review of key issues[R]. Colorado: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2013: 1−35.

[23] International Energy Agency(IEA). World energy outlook 2019[R]. Paris:International Energy Agency(IEA), 2019: 587 −593.

[24] ISAAC T. HyDeploy: the UK's first hydrogen blending deployment project[J]. Clean Energy, 2019, 3(2): 114−125.

[25] TEYSSEN J. Hydrogen levels in German gas distribution system to be raised to 20 percent for the first time [EB/OL]. [2019 − 07 − 24]. https://www.eon.com/en/about -us/media/press-release/2019/hydrogen-levels-in-german-gasdistribution-system-to-be-raised-to-20-percent-for-the-firsttime.html.

[26] Wang Yiming, Li Fanrong, Ling Yueming, et al. China Natural Gas Development Report (2019) [R]. Beijing: National Energy Administration, Development Research Center of the State Council, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, 2019: 1−16. WANG Yiming, LI Fanrong, LING Yueming, et al. China natural gas development report(2019) [R]. Beijing: National Energy Administration, Development Research Center of the State Council, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, 2019: 1−16 .

[27] Zhang Tao, Yao Yuan, Chu Wuyang, et al. Correlation between hydrogen-induced additional pressure and hydrogen-induced threshold pressure of pipeline steel [J]. Chinese Journal of Metals, 2002, 38(8): 844−848. ZHANG Tao, YAO Yuan, CHU Wuyang, et al. Relationship between Hydrogen-Induced additive stress and threshold cracking stress for a pipeline steel[J]. Acta Metallurgica/ Sinica, 2002, 38(8): 844−848.

[28] Liu Ziliang, Xiong Sijiang, Zheng Jinyang, et al. Comparative analysis of hydrogen pipeline and natural gas pipeline [J]. Pressure Vessels, 2020, 37(2): 56−63. LIU Ziliang, XIONG Sijiang, ZHENG Jinyang, et al. Comparative analysis of hydrogen pipeline and natural gas pipeline[J]. Pressure Vessel Technology, 2020, 37(2): 56−63.

[29] Li Ning. Principle and direct assessment of internal corrosion of natural gas pipelines[J]. Corrosion and Protection, 2013, 34(4): 362−366. LI Ning. Principle and direct assessment of internal corrosion of gas pipelines[J]. Corrosion & Protection, 2013, 34(4): 362−366.

[30] 罗洁, 郭正洪, 戎咏华. 先进高强度钢氢脆的研究进展[J]. 机械工程材料, 2015, 39(8): 1−9. LUO Jie, GUO Zhenghong, RONG Yonghua. Research progress on hydrogen embrittlement in advanced high strength steels[J]. Materials for Mechanical Engineering, 2015, 39(8): 1−9.

[31] 刘德林, 陶春虎, 刘昌奎, 等. 钢氢脆失效的新现象与新认识[J]. 失效分析与预防, 2015, 10(6): 376−383. LIU Delin, TAO Chunhu, LIU Changkui, et al. New phenomenons and knowledge of steel hydrogen embrittlement[J]. Failure Analysis and Prevention, 2015, 10 (6): 376−383.

[32] 何家胜, 陈文龙, 王彦馨, 等. 天然气闸阀法兰螺钉断裂失效分析[J]. 武汉工程大学学报, 2012, 34(2): 71−73. HE Jiasheng, CHEN Wenlong, WANG Yanxin, et al. Fracture failure analysis of gas valve flange bolts[J]. Journal of Wuhan Institute of Chemical Technology, 2012, 34(2): 71 −73.

[33] 王春光, 邓德伟, 王永, 等. 离心压缩机一级叶轮开裂分析[C]// 2009 年全国失效分析学术会议论文集. 上海, 2009: 244−247. WANG Chunguang, DENG Dewei, WANG Yong, et al. Cracking analysis of the first stage impeller of centrifugal compressor[C]// 2009 Proceedings of the National Conference on Failure Analysis. Shanghai, 2009: 244−247.

[34] 张体明, 赵卫民, 蒋伟, 等. X80钢焊接残余应力耦合接头组织不均匀下氢扩散的数值模拟[J]. 金属学报, 2019, 55 (2): 258−266 ZHANG Timing, ZHAO Weimin, JIANG Wei, et al. Numerical simulation of hydrogen diffusion in x80 welded joint under the combined effect of residual stress and microstructure inhomogeneity[J]. Acta Metallurgica Sinica, 2019, 55(2): 258−266.

[35] 张小强, 蒋庆梅. 在已建天然气管道中添加氢气管材适应性分析[J]. 压力容器, 2015, 32(10): 17−22. ZHANG Xiaoqiang, JIANG Qingmei. Material adaptive analysis of blending hydrogen into existing nature gas pipeline[J]. Pressure Vessel Technology, 2015, 32(10): 17 −22.

[36] 史世杰, 李晓鹏, 罗珊. 天然气加氢对燃具及管道的影响分析[J]. 云南化工, 2019, 46(6): 70−72. SHI Shijie, LI Xiaopeng, LUO Shan. Research on technology of blending hydrogen into natural gas[J]. Yunnan Chemical Technology, 2019, 46(6): 70−72.

[37] 王守凤, 刘佳. 论天然气管道泄露的主要原因及消除方法[J]. 中国石油和化工标准与质量, 2013, 33(14): 270. WANG Shoufeng, LIU Jia. On the main causes of natural gas pipeline leakage and its elimination methods[J]. China Petroleum and Chemical Standard and Quality, 2013, 33 (14): 270.

[38] 陈惊波. 变压吸附法净化氢气的研究[D]. 南京: 南京工业大学化学化工学院, 2005: 1−65. CHEN Jingbo. Research on PSA of refine hydracid[D].Nanjing: Nanjing University of Technology. College of Chemistry and Chemical, 2005: 1−65.

[39] 张进华, 曲思建, 王鹏, 等. 变压吸附法提纯煤层气中甲烷研究进展[J]. 洁净煤技术, 2019, 25(6): 78−87. ZHANG Jinhua, QU Sijian, WANG Peng, et al. Research progress on the recovery of methane from coalbed methane by pressure swing adsorption[J]. Clean Coal Technology, 2019, 25(6): 78−87.

[40] 马青春. 变压吸附法回收氢气在PTA装置中的应用[J]. 聚酯工业, 2016, 29(4): 28−30. MA Qingchun. Application of pressure swing adsorption technology for recovery hydrogen to PTA plant[J]. Polyester Industry, 2016, 29(4): 28−30.

[41] 吕峰, 乔丽霞, 杨巴特尔, 等. 变压吸附法回收氢气[J]. 聚氯乙烯, 2014, 42(5): 44−46. Lü Feng, QIAO Lixia, YANG Ba Teer, et al. Hydrogen recovery by pressure swing adsorption[J]. Polyvinyl Chloride, 2014, 42(5): 44−46.

[42] 顾飞龙. 变压吸附空气分离技术的开发与应用[J]. 化工装备技术, 1999, 20(1): 49−53. GU Feilong. Development and application of pressure swing adsorption air separation technology[J]. Chemical Equipment Technology, 1999, 20(1): 49−53.

[43] 李旭, 蒲江涛, 陶宇鹏. 变压吸附制氢技术的进展[J]. 低温与特气, 2018, 36(2): 1−4. LI Xu, PU Jiangtao, TAO Yupeng. The development of hydrogen purification by PSA technology[J]. Low Temperature and Specialty Gases, 2018, 36(2): 1−4.

[44] 李红坤, 崔国刚, 陈学佳, 等. PTA装置氢气回收方法分析[J]. 合成纤维工业, 2016, 39(4): 65−68. LI Hongkun, CUI Guogang, CHEN Xuejia, et al. Analysis of hydrogen recovery process of PTA plant[J]. China Synthetic Fiber Industry, 2016, 39(4): 65−68.

[45] 沈光林, 陈勇, 吴鸣. 国内炼厂气中氢气的回收工艺选择[J]. 石油与天然气化工, 2003, 32(4): 193−196. SHEN Guanglin, CHEN Yong, WU Ming. Selection of recovery process for hydrogen in domestic refinery gases[J]. Chemical Engineering of Oil and Gas, 2003, 32(4): 193−196.

[46] 张治锦, 郑宝刚. 净化氢气的变压吸附法研究[J]. 化工设计通讯, 2018, 44(5): 155. ZHANG Zhijin, ZHENG Baogang.Study on pressure swing adsorption method for purifying hydrogen[J]. Chemical Engineering Design Communications, 2018, 44(5): 155.

[47] KOROS W J. Evolving beyond the thermal age of separation processes: Membranes can lead the way[J]. American Institue of Chemical Engineers Journal, 2004, 50(10): 2326− 2334.

[48] 陈晨. 膜耦合工艺提高炼厂气氢气及轻烃回收率研究[D]. 大连: 大连理工大学化工学院, 2014: 1−54.CHEN Chen. Design of membrane coupling process for hydrogen and hydrogen from refinery gas[D]. Dalian: Dalian University of Technology. School of Chemical Engineering, 2014: 1−54.

[49] YUN S, OYAMA S T. Correlations in palladium membranes for hydrogen separation: a review[J]. Journal of Membrane Science, 2011, 375(1/2): 28−45.

[50] 张志宏. 膜与PSA 耦合高收率高纯度回收炼厂气中氢气[D]. 大连: 大连理工大学化工学院, 2015: 1−50. ZHANG Zhihong. Hybrid process of membrane separation and PSA for hydrogen recovery of high purity from refinery gas[D]. Dalian: Dalian University of Technology. School of Chemical Engineering, 2015: 1−50.

[51] 蒋国梁, 徐仁贤, 陈华. 膜分离法与深冷法联合用于催化裂化干气的氢烃分离[J]. 石油炼制与化工, 1995, 26(1): 26 −29. JIANG Guoliang, XU Renxian, CHEN Hua. Hydrogen and hydrocarbon separation from catalytic cracking dry gas by a membrane-cryogenic hybrid process[J]. Petroleum Processing and Petrochemicals, 1995, 26(1): 26−29.

[52] 孙辉. 气体深冷分离工艺探讨[J]. 石化技术, 2018, 25 (11): 200. SUN Hui. Discussion on cryogenic separation process of gas [J]. Petrochemical Industry Technology, 2018, 25(11): 200.

[53] 张秀兰, 黄整, 陈波, 等. LaNi5储氢过程的热力学分析[J]. 物理学报, 2007, 56(7): 4039−4043. ZHANG Xiulan, HUANG Zheng, CHEN Bo, et al. Thermodynamic analysis of thehydrogen storage of LaNi5[J]. Acta Physica Sinica,2007,56(7): 4039−4043.

[54] 李世善. 氢气的分离与纯化技术的发展[J]. 当代化工, 1993, 22(4): 11−14, 53. LI Shishan. Development of separation and purification technology of hydrogen gas[J]. Contemporary Chemical Industry, 1993, 22(4): 11−14, 53.

[55] 王慎东. 天然气组分分析方法的改进[J]. 化工设计通讯, 2020, 46(3): 41−42. WANG Shendong. Improvement of analysis method of natural gas components[J]. Chemical Engineering Design Communications, 2020, 46(3): 41−42.

[56] MIURA N, OZAWA Y, YAMAZOE N, et al. Hydrogen separation with electrochemical cell[J]. ChemistryLetters, 1980,9(10): 1275−1276.

[57] LANGER SH, HALDEMAN R G. Electrolytic hydrogen purification and recovery of same:USA, 3475302[P].1969− 10−28.

[58] MAGET HJ R. Process for gas purification: US, 3,489,670 [P]. 1970−01−13.

[59] PERRY KA, EISMAN GA, BENICEWICZ B C. Electrochemical hydrogen pumping using a hightemperature polybenziazole(PBI) membrane[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2008, 177(2): 478−484.

[60] THOMASSEN M, SHERIDAN E, KVELLO J. Electrochemical hydrogen separation and compression using polybenziazole(PBI) fuel cell technology[J]. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, 2010,2(5): 229−234.

[61] BENICEWICZ BC, EISMAN GA, GASDA MD, et al. Integrated electrochemical hydrogen separation systems: USA, US2007246373A1[P]. 2007−10−25.

[62] WINNICK J. Electrochemical membrane gas separation[J]. Chemical Engineering Progress, 1990, 86(1): 41−46.

[63] FAROOQUE M, 唐文俊. 使用磷酸膜池的新型电化学氢分离装置[J]. 低温与特气, 1993, 11(4): 24−28. FAROOQUE M, TANG Wenjun. Novel electrochemical hydrogen separation device using phosphoric acid membrane pool[J]. Low Temperature and Specialty Gases, 1993, 11(4): 24−28.

[64] SEDLAK J, AUSTIN J, LACONTI A. Hydrogen recovery and purification using the solid polymer electrolyte electrolysis cell[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1981, 6(1): 45−51.

[65] LEE HK, CHOI HY, CHOI KH, et al. Hydrogen separation using electrochemical method[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2004,132(1/2): 92−98.

[66] 曾洪瑜, 史翊翔, 蔡宁生. 燃料电池分布式供能技术发展现状与展望[J]. 发电技术, 2018, 39(2): 165−170. ZENG Hongyu, SHI Yixiang, CAI Ningsheng. Development and prospect of fuel cell technology for distributed power system[J]. Power Generation Technology, 2018, 39(2): 165 −170.

[67] 罗子萱, 徐华池, 袁满. 天然气掺混氢气在家用燃气具上燃烧的安全性及排放性能测试与评价[J]. 石油与天然气化工, 2019, 48(2): 50−56. LUO Zixuan, XU Huachi, YUAN Man. Safety and emission performance test and evaluation of natural gas mixed with hydrogen combustion ondomestic gas appliances[J]. Chemical Engineering of Oil & Gas, 2019, 48(2): 50−56.

[68] 潘文磊. 氢氧除碳的机理及实验研究[D]. 哈尔滨: 哈尔滨工业大学机电工程学院, 2012: 1−65. PAN Wenlei. Research on mechanisms and experiment of carbon removal with oxyhydrogen[D]. Harbin: Harbin Institute of Technology. School of Mechatronics Engineering, 2012, 1−65

[69] 马向阳, 黄小美, 吴嫦. 天然气掺氢对家用燃气灶燃烧特性的影响研究[J]. 可再生能源, 2018, 36(12): 1746−1751. MA Xiangyang, HUANG Xiaomei, WU Chang. Study on the influence of natural gas hydrogenation on combustion acteristics of domestic gas cooker[J]. Renewable Energy, 2018, 36(12): 1746−1751.

[70] 王磊, 方俊华, 黄震. 纯氢和天然气掺氢燃料发动机的试验研究[J]. 柴油机, 2009, 31(5): 6−10. WANG Lei, FANG Junhua, HUANG Zhen. Experimental investigation involving pure hydrogen and addition of hydrogen tonatural gas on a SI engine[J]. Diesel Engine, 2009, 31(5): 6−10.

[71] DAS L. A comparative evaluation of the performance acteristics of a spark ignition engine using hydrogen and compressed natural gas as alternative fuels[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2000, 25(8): 783−793.

[72] LI Hailin, KARIM G A. Exhaust emissions from an SI engine operating on gaseous fuel mixtures containing hydrogen[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2005, 30(13/14): 1491−1499.

[73] AKANSU SO, KAHRAMAN N, ÇEPER B. Experimental study on a spark ignition engine fuelled by methanehydrogen mixtures[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2007, 32(17): 4279−4284.

[74] AKANSU SO, BAYRAK M. Experimental study on a spark ignition engine fueled by CH4/H2(70/30) and LPG[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2011, 36(15): 9260−9266.

[75] AKANSU SO, DULGER Z, KAHRAMAN N, et al. Internal combustion engines fueled by natural gas: hydrogen mixtures [J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, 29(14): 1527−1539.

[76] CEPER BA, AKANSU SO, KAHRAMAN N. Investigation of cylinder pressure for H2/CH4 mixtures at different loads [J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2009, 34(11): 4855−4861.

[77] KAHRAMAN N, CEPER B, AKANSU S, et al. Investigation of combustion acteristics and emissions in a spark-ignition engine fuelled with natural gas-hydrogen blends[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2009, 34(2): 1026−1034.

[78] DIMOPOULOS P, BACH C, SOLTIC P, et al. Hydrogennatural gas blends fuelling passenger car engines: Combustion, emissions and well-to-wheels assessment[J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2008, 33(23): 7224−7236.

[79] AKANSU SO, DULGER Z, KAHRAMAN N, et al. Internal combustion engines fueled by natural gas: hydrogen mixtures [J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, 29(14):1527−1539.

[80] 李孝堂. 燃气轮机的发展及中国的困局[J]. 航空发动机, 2011, 37(3): 1−7. LI Xiaotang. Development of gas turbine and dilemma in China[J]. Aeroengine, 2011, 37(3): 1−7.

[81] SEKAR C A. Combustion study and emission acteristics of blends of diesel and hythane for gas turbine engines[J]. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 2016, 7(6): 105−113.

[82] SCHEFER RW, WICKSALL DM, AGRAWAL A K. Combustion of hydrogen-enriched methane in a lean premixed swirl-stabilized burner[J]. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 2002, 29(1):843−851.

[83] RORTVEIT GJ, HUSTAD JE, WILLIAMS F A. NOx formation in diluted CH4/H2 erflow diffusion flames[J]. Clean Air, 2003, 4(4): 303−314.

[84] 张文普, 丰镇平. 燃气轮机技术的发展与应用[J]. 燃气轮机技术, 2002, 15(3): 17−22, 25. ZHANG Wenjin, FENG Zhenping. Development and application of gas turbine technology[J]. Gas Turbine Technology, 2002, 15(3): 17−22, 25.

[85] 王吉华, 居钰生, 易正根, 等. 燃料电池技术发展及应用现状综述(上)[J]. 现代车用动力, 2018, 44(2): 7−12, 39. WANG Jihua, JU Yusheng, YI Zhenggen, et al. Review on development and application of fuel cell technology(1) [J]. Modern Vehicle Power, 2018, 44(2): 7−12, 39.

[86] RASHEED RKA, QUAN Liao, ZHANG Caizhi, et al. A review on modelling of high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells(HT-PEMFCs) [J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2017, 42(5): 3142−3165.

[87] 徐自亮, 余英, 李力. 氢燃料电池应用进展[J]. 中国基础科学, 2018, 20(2): 7−17. XU Ziliang, YU Ying, LI Li. Latest progress of hydrogen fuel cell's applications[J]. China Basic Science, 2018, 20(2): 7−17.

[88] 白秀娟, 刘春梅, 兰维娟,等. 国内外车用氢燃料电池技术应用进展[J]. 广东化工, 2019, 46(20): 50−51. BAI Xiujuan, LIU Chunmei, LAN Weijuan, et al. Progress in application of hydrogen fuel cell technology for vehicles at home and abroad[J]. Guangdong Chemical Industry, 2019, 46 (20): 50−51.

原标题:混氢天然气输氢技术研究进展